Works Cited List: The Development and Diplomatic Relations of Nuclear Weapons from 1945 to 1990

Works Cited
Andrews, Elaine K. Civil Defense in the Nuclear Age. Franklin Watts: New York. 1985.
Brennan, Donald G. Arms Control, Disarmament, and National Security. George Braziller: New York. 1961.
“Foreign Missile Developments and the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States through 2015.” National Intelligence Council. Sep. 1999. 29 Mar 2004 .
Garwin, Richard L. “Nuclear Weapons in the 21st Century: Prospects and Policy.” 23 Oct. 1999 – 25 Oct. 1999. 29 Mar. 2004 .
Mendelsohn, Jack, and Grahame, David. Arms Control Chronology. The Center for Defense Information: Washington D.C. 2002.
“Nuclear Weapon.” Wikipedia. Nov. 2000 – 29 Mar. 2004. 29 Mar. 2004 .
“Nuclear Energy.” Harper’s Magazine. April 2004. 29 Mar. 2004 .

Conclusion: The Development and Diplomatic Relations of Nuclear Weapons from 1945 to 1990

Conclusion

Of anything, what had the greatest impact on the development of nuclear weapons, was fear of being annihilated, a threat that faced every nation. Paranoia kept every nation on edge, and fearful: “Number of false alarms of nuclear missile attacks generated by the US early warning system between 1977 and 1984: 20,784” (Harper’s Magazine, “Nuclear Energy”, http://www.harpers.org/Nuclear.html). The fear of extermination caused many nations to pursue the development of nuclear weapons. This was because nuclear weapons were known to be deadly, and by having them, a country could easily protect itself from others. The threat of your neighbor having more nuclear weapons than you caused the development and production of nuclear weapons to occur at an augmented rate. The fear of annihilation came from the development of nuclear weapons, and the stockpiles of them that rival nations had built up. Such an immense fear caused dozens of nations, primarily the US and USSR, to form agreements in the form of treaties, limiting nuclear capabilities. Limiting nuclear capabilities was done by limiting: nuclear weapons stockpiles and the capabilities of those weapons, nuclear weapon use in specific regions of the world, and, nuclear weapon use in certain geographical locations. Countless treaties after treaties were signed, eventually causing the general fear of extinction by nuclear weapons to subside within the world. If you were Reagan, would you have accepted Gorbachev’s proposal to eliminate all nuclear weapons by the year 2000?

Works Cited
Andrews, Elaine K. Civil Defense in the Nuclear Age. Franklin Watts: New York. 1985.
Brennan, Donald G. Arms Control, Disarmament, and National Security. George Braziller: New York. 1961.
“Foreign Missile Developments and the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States through 2015.” National Intelligence Council. Sep. 1999. 29 Mar 2004 .
Garwin, Richard L. “Nuclear Weapons in the 21st Century: Prospects and Policy.” 23 Oct. 1999 – 25 Oct. 1999. 29 Mar. 2004 .
Mendelsohn, Jack, and Grahame, David. Arms Control Chronology. The Center for Defense Information: Washington D.C. 2002.
“Nuclear Weapon.” Wikipedia. Nov. 2000 – 29 Mar. 2004. 29 Mar. 2004 .
“Nuclear Energy.” Harper’s Magazine. April 2004. 29 Mar. 2004 .

1980s: The Development and Diplomatic Relations of Nuclear Weapons from 1945 to 1990

1980s

One detail that must be realized is that: “Any country, certainly a major power, acting as a unit, is physically free at any time to terminate a rule restricting its conduct, no matter how clearly it was written or how many times it was signed” (Brennan, 57). This fact limits the amount of safety a nation can feel, regardless of how many treaties and agreements have been signed. With this in mind, it is plausible therefore, to come to the conclusion that: “Short of world government, there is no physical control in arms control” (Brennan, 57). The last atmospheric test to date, by any nation, was conducted by China on October 16, 1980. Just under four years later, China signed with the US, the PNCA. A year later, the South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty is signed by 16 parties, banning production, acquisition, possession, testing, or control of, nuclear explosive devices. Almost six months later, in November 1985, Brazil and Argentina agree to develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes only, by signing the JDNP.

In what is the best attempt yet at national security, Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev proposed to US President Ronald Reagan, the elimination of all nuclear weapons by the year 2000. Reagan was disinclined to acquiesce with Gorbachev’s request, politely denying the proposal. The refusal came as a result of the US’s initiative to be the greatest nation in the world, and Reagan believed that in order to maintain this, a nuclear weapons stockpile, in the least, would be required. Donald Brennan comments that, “No arms-control plan will remain effective and dependable unless it continues to serve the national interests of each of the parties, as its leaders conceive those interests” (Brennan, 53). Eliminating all nuclear weapons was not in the best interest of the United States, thus Reagan was forced to reject Gorbachev’s proposal. It is thus reasonable to conclude that by not eliminating all nuclear weapons, Reagan is responsible for the US’s success: “The US has by far the greatest and most flexible military capability in the world, and its nuclear weapon technology is the most advanced” (http://www.fas.org/ rlg/102599nw21.htm).

In March 1986, Reagan proposed using Corrtex, which involves using a new hydrodynamic yield measurement method, to monitor the nuclear sites of countries signed onto the TTBT and PNET, hence ensuring cooperation with the treaties. From the early days of Dec. 1987, arose the signing of the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty, between the US and USSR. This extremely important treaty eliminated “all ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges between 500 and 5500 km” (Mendelsohn, Grahame, 2). This greatly reduced the threat that each nation posed to the other. For added security, and to reduce the risk of a nuclear war, in May 1988, the US and USSR agreed to notify each other of all ICBM and SLBM launches at least 24 hours in advance. This concurrence became known as the Ballistic Missile Launch Notification Agreement. To conclude the decade, Russia conducted its last nuclear test to date, before entering into a unilateral moratorium involving several countries.

Works Cited
Andrews, Elaine K. Civil Defense in the Nuclear Age. Franklin Watts: New York. 1985.
Brennan, Donald G. Arms Control, Disarmament, and National Security. George Braziller: New York. 1961.
“Foreign Missile Developments and the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States through 2015.” National Intelligence Council. Sep. 1999. 29 Mar 2004 .
Garwin, Richard L. “Nuclear Weapons in the 21st Century: Prospects and Policy.” 23 Oct. 1999 – 25 Oct. 1999. 29 Mar. 2004 .
Mendelsohn, Jack, and Grahame, David. Arms Control Chronology. The Center for Defense Information: Washington D.C. 2002.
“Nuclear Weapon.” Wikipedia. Nov. 2000 – 29 Mar. 2004. 29 Mar. 2004 .
“Nuclear Energy.” Harper’s Magazine. April 2004. 29 Mar. 2004 .

1970s: The Development and Diplomatic Relations of Nuclear Weapons from 1945 to 1990

1970s

Disallowing weapons of mass destruction on the seabed and the ocean floor, beyond a 12-mile coastal zone, was the Seabed Arms Control Treaty, signed in February 1971. On May 26, 1972, the US and USSR sign the Antiballistic Missile Treaty (ABMT) limiting antiballistic missile defenses, in addition to the SALT I Interim Agreement, which established “an interim ceiling on strategic offensive nuclear weapons” (Mendelsohn, Grahame, 2). “The idea behind the limitation of ABMs was to reinforce the doctrine that defense against nuclear weapons was impossible” (Andrews, 49). These nations agreed to minimize their defenses and offenses, making each more vulnerable to an attack, and thus each less likely to attack. Because of fear, nations constantly sought ways to minimize their risk of being attacked. This led to the US-USSR agreement known as the PNWA, in which each “agreed to consult one another in [a] time of crisis in order to avoid nuclear conflict” (Mendelsohn, Grahame, 29). “Threat [and fear] has produced deterrent which has largely succeeded thus far in preventing large-scale war” (Brennan, 45). With this, it is evident that fear of a nuclear attack kept all nations frequently searching for solutions to their fears, mainly through treaties and agreements.

With interests in national security as well, India proceeded to conduct its first nuclear test in May 1974. A major factor in limiting the advancement in nuclear weapons technology came on July 3, 1974, when the US and USSR signed the Threshold Test Ban Treaty (TTBT), which banned underground tests of nuclear weapons with a yield higher than 150 kilotons. Later in 1976, both nations also signed the Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty (PNET), where both factions agreed not to test any nuclear weapons above 150 kilotons, regardless of location. Neither the TTBT nor the PNET were ratified until Jun. 1, 1990, during the Presidencies of George Bush Sr. and Mikhail Gorbachev. One month following the signing of the TTBT, the Zangger Committee was formed of 15 nations. It established a set of guidelines which must be adhered to when exporting anything that could be considered beneficial to a nuclear weapons program. In the midst of signing this plethora of treaties, the US was secretly developing a neutron bomb, and in July 1977, the US came out and said that it had already tested the first neutron bomb ever made. This deadly new weapon, when detonated, left structures in tact, for the most part, while killing all biologically living organisms in its path. Two months following this announcement, the Soviet Union had invaded Afghanistan, and the CTBT talks were recessed, only never to be resumed. To finish off the decade, and provide both the US and USSR with more comfort, and SALT II is signed, limiting even further, nuclear weapons stockpiles.

Works Cited
Andrews, Elaine K. Civil Defense in the Nuclear Age. Franklin Watts: New York. 1985.
Brennan, Donald G. Arms Control, Disarmament, and National Security. George Braziller: New York. 1961.
“Foreign Missile Developments and the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States through 2015.” National Intelligence Council. Sep. 1999. 29 Mar 2004 .
Garwin, Richard L. “Nuclear Weapons in the 21st Century: Prospects and Policy.” 23 Oct. 1999 – 25 Oct. 1999. 29 Mar. 2004 .
Mendelsohn, Jack, and Grahame, David. Arms Control Chronology. The Center for Defense Information: Washington D.C. 2002.
“Nuclear Weapon.” Wikipedia. Nov. 2000 – 29 Mar. 2004. 29 Mar. 2004 .
“Nuclear Energy.” Harper’s Magazine. April 2004. 29 Mar. 2004 .

1960s: The Development and Diplomatic Relations of Nuclear Weapons from 1945 to 1990

1960s

With a new decade, came a new nation to the nuclear club; France conducted its first nuclear test in Algeria, on Feb. 13, 1960, and its first Hydrogen Bomb test in 1968. A few months following the first French test, a US U-2 plane is shot down over the USSR. Because of this, Khrushchev canceled the scheduled Paris summit, and thus no additional progress was made in the CTBT negotiations, until they were reconvened in Geneva in 1961. There, the US proposed to the USSR, 20 on-site inspections per year of each other’s testing sites, to ensure no additional testing has been taking place; the USSR wants only 3, and an agreement cannot be reached. Shortly following this dispute, the US and UK propose a draft CTBT, limiting nuclear testing to underground, with explosions measuring sub 4.75 on the Richter scale. Again, the USSR rejects the proposal, and an accord is unable to be attained. The US-USSR moratorium reached in the late 1950s expires, and the USSR resumes testing; Tsar Bomba is detonated with a yield of roughly 50 megatons, the largest explosion of any kind ever in history.

In September of 1961, the US and UK urge the USSR to agree to a ban on atmospheric testing; yet again, the Soviet leader Khrushchev rejects the proposal, an action to which the US responds by resuming underground testing, and atmospheric testing about 7 months later. From July 15 to August 5, 1963, the original three nuclear nations met in Moscow, and signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT), which outlawed nuclear testing in the atmosphere, outer space, and underwater. In the midst of all this, Elaine Andrews reminds that: “In spite of these efforts at control, however, the arms race between the United States and the Soviet Union went on at an alarming rate” (Andrews, Elaine K., Civil Defense in the Nuclear Age, 47). This is supported by the fact that: “The US in 1967 had a peak stockpile of some 33,000 nuclear warheads, and Russia in 1982 had some 45,000” (Garwin, Richard L., “Nuclear Weapons in the 21st Century: Prospects and Policy”, http://www.fas.org/rlg/102599nw21.htm). October of 1964 introduced the Chinese to nuclear weapons, with their first test taking place on the 16th, and the adoption of a “no use nuclear weapons first” policy. The Chinese wasted no time in acquiring the materials and knowledge they needed to develop their nuclear arsenal, with the first Chinese thermonuclear test taking place on June 17, 1967. Earlier that year, the major nuclear powers gathered to sign the Outer Space Treaty, prohibiting weapons of mass destruction in outer space or on other celestial bodies.

In the early months of 1967, the Treaty of Tlatelolco was signed by every nation in Latin America and the Caribbean, which forbade the existence of nuclear weapons in Latin America; every nation ratified the treaty, excluding Cuba. 18 months later, 61 countries signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, the goal of which was to halt all nuclear testing by any nation, for good. The 1960s brought much change concerning the diplomatic relations of nuclear weapons, and ended with NATO changing its nuclear defense policy to “flexible response”, meaning that NATO would only use nuclear weapons as a last resort of military action, and in doing so, would only use them in small amounts, increasing in size as needed. This shows that even NATO realized the extensively horrid capabilities that nuclear weapons possessed, and that eliminating them was for the good of mankind.

Works Cited
Andrews, Elaine K. Civil Defense in the Nuclear Age. Franklin Watts: New York. 1985.
Brennan, Donald G. Arms Control, Disarmament, and National Security. George Braziller: New York. 1961.
“Foreign Missile Developments and the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States through 2015.” National Intelligence Council. Sep. 1999. 29 Mar 2004 .
Garwin, Richard L. “Nuclear Weapons in the 21st Century: Prospects and Policy.” 23 Oct. 1999 – 25 Oct. 1999. 29 Mar. 2004 .
Mendelsohn, Jack, and Grahame, David. Arms Control Chronology. The Center for Defense Information: Washington D.C. 2002.
“Nuclear Weapon.” Wikipedia. Nov. 2000 – 29 Mar. 2004. 29 Mar. 2004 .
“Nuclear Energy.” Harper’s Magazine. April 2004. 29 Mar. 2004 .

1950s: The Development and Diplomatic Relations of Nuclear Weapons from 1945 to 1990

1950s

On January 31, 1950, President Truman directed the Atomic Energy Commission to “continue its work on all forms of atomic weapons, including the hydrogen, or super-bombs”, in order for the US to be able “to defend itself against any possible aggressor.” With this statement, it is evident that fear was already playing a role in the development of nuclear weapons. In mid 1952, the British conducted their first nuclear test near the Monte Bello Islands, off the coast of Australia, and their first thermonuclear test in early 1957. By mid-to-late 1952, the US had already developed a thermonuclear device, with which they had successful tests. Not far behind the US was the USSR, which tested its first thermonuclear device less than nine months after its rival, and detonated the world’s first air-dropped thermonuclear device in November of 1955. With so much testing of thermonuclear and nuclear devices taking place, the US proposed that its Atoms for Peace plan be ratified immediately, which called for the creation of an international atomic energy agency, which “would receive contributions from nations with nuclear material stockpiles, and utilize them for peaceful purposes” (Mendelsohn, Grahame, 61). The IAEA was eventually established in July of 1957. Donald Brennan asserts that: “The major point of controversy concerning our present and future strategic nuclear forces is whether the US should adopt a position of approximate equality with the USSR, or whether we should continue to maintain a considerable margin of superiority in such forces” (Brennan, Donald G., Arms Control, Disarmament, and National Security, 28).

By 1957, nuclear weapons were making a significant presence in the world, with NATO making them its chief means of defensive military action: “Nuclear weaponry has become a part of Western Culture; the decades post-WWII can be termed the atomic age” (Wikipedia, “Nuclear Weapon”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon). The beginning of 1958 brought with it a petition to stop nuclear testing immediately by all nations, signed by 9,235 scientists. Such a strong argument prompted the beginning of the CTBT negotiations between the US, UK, and USSR. All parties agree to a moratorium, which is to last for 1 year, but most likely longer, should the participating parties choose to extend it. In the last month of 1959, 12 nations signed the Antarctic Treaty, banning the detonation of nuclear weapons on, and military use of, the continent. This created the first ever Nuclear-Weapons-Free-Zone.

Works Cited
Andrews, Elaine K. Civil Defense in the Nuclear Age. Franklin Watts: New York. 1985.
Brennan, Donald G. Arms Control, Disarmament, and National Security. George Braziller: New York. 1961.
“Foreign Missile Developments and the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States through 2015.” National Intelligence Council. Sep. 1999. 29 Mar 2004 .
Garwin, Richard L. “Nuclear Weapons in the 21st Century: Prospects and Policy.” 23 Oct. 1999 – 25 Oct. 1999. 29 Mar. 2004 .
Mendelsohn, Jack, and Grahame, David. Arms Control Chronology. The Center for Defense Information: Washington D.C. 2002.
“Nuclear Weapon.” Wikipedia. Nov. 2000 – 29 Mar. 2004. 29 Mar. 2004 .
“Nuclear Energy.” Harper’s Magazine. April 2004. 29 Mar. 2004 .

1940s: The Development and Diplomatic Relations of Nuclear Weapons from 1945 to 1990

1940s

Following the US’s detonation of the world’s first nuclear weapon, the USSR felt the need to compete, conducting its first nuclear test almost 4 years later. During the time between these tests, a man named Bernard M. Baruch proposed that all atomic energy be internationally controlled, and all atomic activities be licensed; the Baruch Plan was quickly dismissed by the USSR. The end of the 1940s brought with them the creation of COCOM, which was established by the noncommunist nations of the world, to prevent “the transfer of militarily useful technology to the communist world” (Mendelsohn, Grahame, 61).

Works Cited
Andrews, Elaine K. Civil Defense in the Nuclear Age. Franklin Watts: New York. 1985.
Brennan, Donald G. Arms Control, Disarmament, and National Security. George Braziller: New York. 1961.
“Foreign Missile Developments and the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States through 2015.” National Intelligence Council. Sep. 1999. 29 Mar 2004 .
Garwin, Richard L. “Nuclear Weapons in the 21st Century: Prospects and Policy.” 23 Oct. 1999 – 25 Oct. 1999. 29 Mar. 2004 .
Mendelsohn, Jack, and Grahame, David. Arms Control Chronology. The Center for Defense Information: Washington D.C. 2002.
“Nuclear Weapon.” Wikipedia. Nov. 2000 – 29 Mar. 2004. 29 Mar. 2004 .
“Nuclear Energy.” Harper’s Magazine. April 2004. 29 Mar. 2004 .

Introduction: The Development and Diplomatic Relations of Nuclear Weapons from 1945 to 1990

Introduction

Throughout the history of the world, fear has brought great change to the many people it affects. One such instance of this is in the case of nuclear weapons, and their change throughout times past. The mid-1940s brought with them the discovery of one of the greatest, most powerful scientific units ever: nuclear energy. Nuclear energy can be used for many useful purposes, including the production of power, and the ability to make X-rays. The United States government saw nuclear energy, instead, as a way to intimidate rivals. From what was known at the time, nuclear radiation was an extremely hazardous, often lethal, material. Because of this, the military considered nuclear energy to be more of an aid as a weapon than anything else. With this, the Manhattan Project was initiated in late 1942, marking the beginning of nuclear weapons research in the world. Since that time, an uncountable number of nuclear tests have taken place by nations all across the globe, each with the same mentality: don’t be the last one without the weapon, or you’re done for. “July 16, 1945. The US conducts the world’s first nuclear weapons test code-named Trinity, at Alamogordo, NM” (Mendelsohn, Jack, and David Grahame, Arms Control Chronology, 5). It was impossible for any nation to ignore the threat which faced it, for fear of extermination kept the development of nuclear weapons at a steadily growing rate.


Works Cited
Andrews, Elaine K. Civil Defense in the Nuclear Age. Franklin Watts: New York. 1985.
Brennan, Donald G. Arms Control, Disarmament, and National Security. George Braziller: New York. 1961.
“Foreign Missile Developments and the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States through 2015.” National Intelligence Council. Sep. 1999. 29 Mar 2004 .
Garwin, Richard L. “Nuclear Weapons in the 21st Century: Prospects and Policy.” 23 Oct. 1999 – 25 Oct. 1999. 29 Mar. 2004 .
Mendelsohn, Jack, and Grahame, David. Arms Control Chronology. The Center for Defense Information: Washington D.C. 2002.
“Nuclear Weapon.” Wikipedia. Nov. 2000 – 29 Mar. 2004. 29 Mar. 2004 .
“Nuclear Energy.” Harper’s Magazine. April 2004. 29 Mar. 2004 .